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A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other liquid is heated. The fluid will not boil. (In North America, the term "furnace" is normally used if the reason is not to boil the fluid.) The warmed or vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in a variety of procedures or heating system applications,[1 - [2 - including drinking water heating, central heating system, boiler-based power generation, cooking, and sanitation.

Materials
The pressure vessel of the boiler is usually manufactured from steel (or alloy steel), or historically of wrought iron. Stainless steel, of the austenitic types especially, is not used in wetted elements of boilers thanks to stress and corrosion corrosion breaking.[3 - However, ferritic stainless is often used in superheater sections that will not be exposed to boiling drinking water, and electrically heated stainless shell boilers are allowed under the Western european "Pressure Equipment Directive" for production of steam for sterilizers and disinfectors.[4 -
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiler - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiler
In live steam models, copper or brass is often used since it is more easily fabricated in smaller size boilers. Historically, copper was often used for fireboxes (especially for steam locomotives), because of its better formability and higher thermal conductivity; however, in newer times, the high price of copper often makes this an uneconomic choice and cheaper substitutes (such as steel) are used instead.

For a lot of the Victorian "age group of vapor", the only material used for boilermaking was the highest quality of wrought iron, with assembly by rivetting. This iron was often obtained from specialist ironworks, such as at Cleator Moor (UK), observed for the high quality of their rolled plate and its suitability for high-reliability use in critical applications, such as high-pressure boilers. In the 20th century, design practice relocated towards the use of metal instead, which is more powerful and cheaper, with welded structure, which is quicker and requires less labour. It ought to be noted, however, that wrought iron boilers corrode far slower than their modern-day metal counterparts, and are less vunerable to localized stress-corrosion and pitting. This makes the durability of older wrought-iron boilers significantly superior to those of welded steel boilers.

Cast iron may be used for the heating system vessel of home drinking water heaters. Although such heaters are usually termed "boilers" in a few countries, their purpose will be to produce warm water, not steam, and they also run at low pressure and stay away from boiling. The brittleness of cast iron makes it impractical for high-pressure steam boilers.
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Energy
The source of heating for a boiler is combustion of any of several fuels, such as wood, coal, oil, or gas. Electric vapor boilers use resistance- or immersion-type heating elements. Nuclear fission is also used as a heat source for generating steam, either straight (BWR) or, generally, in specialised temperature exchangers called "steam generators" (PWR). High temperature recovery vapor generators (HRSGs) use heat rejected from other processes such as gas turbine.

Boiler efficiency
there are two methods to gauge the boiler efficiency 1) direct method 2) indirect method

Direct method -direct approach to boiler efficiency test is more usable or more common

boiler efficiency =Q*((Hg-Hf)/q)*(GCV *100 ) Q =Total steam stream Hg= Enthalpy of saturated vapor in k cal/kg Hf =Enthalpy of give food to water in kcal/kg q= level of gas use in kg/hr GCV =gross calorific value in kcal/kg like pet coke (8200 kcal/KG)

indirect method -to gauge the boiler efficiency in indirect method, we need a following parameter like

Ultimate analysis of gas (H2,S2,S,C moisture constraint, ash constraint)
percentage of O2 or CO2 at flue gas
flue gas temperature at outlet
ambient temperature in deg c and humidity of air in kg/kg
GCV of fuel in kcal/kg
ash percentage in combustible fuel
GCV of ash in kcal/kg
Configurations
Boilers can be classified into the following configurations:

Pot boiler or Haycock boiler/Haystack boiler: a primitive "kettle" where a fireplace heats a partially filled drinking water box from below. 18th century Haycock boilers generally produced and stored large quantities of very low-pressure steam, often hardly above that of the atmosphere. These could burn off wood or most often, coal. Efficiency was very low.
Flued boiler with one or two large flues-an early forerunner or kind of fire-tube boiler.

Diagram of the fire-tube boiler
Fire-tube boiler: Here, drinking water partially fills a boiler barrel with a small volume remaining above to accommodate the vapor (steam space). This is the kind of boiler used in all steam locomotives nearly. The heat source is inside a furnace or firebox that has to be held permanently surrounded by the water in order to keep the heat of the heating system surface below the boiling point. The furnace can be situated at one end of a fire-tube which lengthens the path of the hot gases, thus augmenting the heating surface which may be further increased by making the gases invert direction through another parallel pipe or a bundle of multiple tubes (two-pass or return flue boiler); alternatively the gases may be studied along the sides and then under the boiler through flues (3-pass boiler). In case there is a locomotive-type boiler, a boiler barrel stretches from the firebox and the hot gases go through a bundle of fire tubes inside the barrel which greatly increases the heating surface in comparison to a single tube and further boosts heat transfer. Fire-tube boilers have a comparatively low rate of steam production usually, but high vapor storage capacity. Fire-tube boilers mainly burn solid fuels, but are easily flexible to those of the liquid or gas variety.

Diagram of the water-tube boiler.
Water-tube boiler: In this type, pipes filled up with water are arranged in the furnace in several possible configurations. The water tubes connect large drums Often, the low ones containing water and the upper ones water and steam; in other situations, such as a mono-tube boiler, drinking water is circulated by a pump through a succession of coils. This type generally gives high steam production rates, but less storage space capacity than the above mentioned. Water tube boilers can be made to exploit any high temperature source and tend to be preferred in high-pressure applications because the high-pressure water/steam is contained within small diameter pipes which can withstand the pressure with a thinner wall structure.
Flash boiler: A flash boiler is a specialized type of water-tube boiler where tubes are close collectively and drinking water is pumped through them. A flash boiler differs from the kind of mono-tube vapor generator where the tube is permanently filled up with water. Super fast boiler, the pipe is held so hot that the water give food to is quickly flashed into steam and superheated. Flash boilers had some use in automobiles in the 19th century and this use continued into the early 20th century. .

1950s design vapor locomotive boiler, from a Victorian Railways J class
Fire-tube boiler with Water-tube firebox. Sometimes the two above types have been mixed in the next manner: the firebox contains an assembly of water tubes, called thermic siphons. The gases go through a conventional firetube boiler then. Water-tube fireboxes were installed in many Hungarian locomotives,[citation needed - but have met with little success far away.
Sectional boiler. In a solid iron sectional boiler, sometimes called a "pork chop boiler" water is contained inside cast iron sections.[citation needed - These sections are assembled on site to make the finished boiler.
Safety
See also: Boiler explosion
To define and secure boilers safely, some professional specialized organizations such as the American Society of Mechanical Technicians (ASME) develop criteria and regulation rules. For example, the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code is a standard providing a wide range of rules and directives to ensure compliance of the boilers and other pressure vessels with protection, security and design standards.[5 -

Historically, boilers were a source of many serious injuries and property destruction due to poorly understood engineering principles. Thin and brittle steel shells can rupture, while welded or riveted seams could start badly, resulting in a violent eruption of the pressurized vapor. When drinking water is converted to vapor it expands to over 1,000 times its original travels and volume down steam pipes at over 100 kilometres each hour. Because of this, vapor is a great way of moving energy and warmth around a site from a central boiler house to where it is necessary, but with no right boiler feed water treatment, a steam-raising vegetable will suffer from range corrosion and formation. At best, this raises energy costs and can result in poor quality vapor, reduced efficiency, shorter vegetation and unreliable procedure. At worst, it can lead to catastrophic failure and lack of life. Collapsed or dislodged boiler pipes can also squirt scalding-hot steam and smoke from the air intake and firing chute, injuring the firemen who insert the coal into the open fire chamber. Extremely large boilers providing a huge selection of horsepower to use factories could demolish entire structures.[6 -

A boiler which has a loss of give food to drinking water and it is permitted to boil dry out can be hugely dangerous. If supply drinking water is then sent in to the empty boiler, the tiny cascade of inbound water instantly boils on contact with the superheated steel shell and leads to a violent explosion that cannot be controlled even by basic safety vapor valves. Draining of the boiler can also happen if a leak occurs in the vapor supply lines that is larger than the make-up water supply could replace. The Hartford Loop was invented in 1919 by the Hartford Steam Boiler and Insurance Company as a method to assist in preventing this problem from happening, and therefore reduce their insurance statements.[7 - [8 -

Superheated steam boiler

A superheated boiler on the steam locomotive.
Main article: Superheater
Most boilers produce steam to be used at saturation temperature; that is, saturated steam. Superheated steam boilers vaporize water and further heat up the steam in a superheater then. This provides vapor at higher heat, but can decrease the overall thermal efficiency of the vapor generating seed because the bigger vapor heat takes a higher flue gas exhaust heat range.[citation needed - There are many ways to circumvent this issue, by providing an economizer that heats the give food to drinking water typically, a combustion air heater in the hot flue gas exhaust route, or both. A couple of benefits to superheated vapor that may, and often will, increase overall efficiency of both vapor generation and its utilization: benefits in input heat range to a turbine should outweigh any cost in additional boiler problem and expense. There may be practical restrictions in using wet vapor also, as entrained condensation droplets will harm turbine blades.

Superheated steam presents unique safety concerns because, if any system component fails and allows steam to flee, the high temperature and pressure can cause serious, instantaneous injury to anyone in its path. Since the escaping steam will be completely superheated vapor, detection can be difficult, although the extreme heat and sound from such a leak indicates its presence clearly.

Superheater operation is similar to that of the coils on an fresh air conditioning unit, although for a different purpose. The steam piping is directed through the flue gas path in the boiler furnace. The heat in this area is normally between 1,300 and 1,600 °C (2,372 and 2,912 °F). Some superheaters are radiant type; that is, they absorb heat by radiation. Others are convection type, absorbing temperature from a fluid. Some are a combination of both types. Through either method, the extreme high temperature in the flue gas path will also high temperature the superheater vapor piping and the steam within. While the temperature of the steam in the superheater goes up, the pressure of the vapor will not and the pressure remains the same as that of the boiler.[9 - Virtually all steam superheater system designs remove droplets entrained in the steam to avoid damage to the turbine blading and associated piping.

Supercritical steam generator

Boiler for a charged power herb.
Main article: Supercritical steam generator
Supercritical steam generators are used for the production of electric power frequently. They operate at supercritical pressure. As opposed to a "subcritical boiler", a supercritical vapor generator operates at such a higher pressure (over 3,200 psi or 22 MPa) that the physical turbulence that characterizes boiling ceases to occur; the fluid is neither liquid nor gas but a super-critical liquid. There is no generation of vapor bubbles within water, because the pressure is above the critical pressure point of which vapor bubbles can form. As the liquid expands through the turbine phases, its thermodynamic state drops below the critical point as it does work turning the turbine which converts the power generator from which power is ultimately extracted. The fluid at that time may be considered a mixture of vapor and liquid droplets as it goes by into the condenser. This leads to somewhat less energy use and for that reason less greenhouse gas production. The term "boiler" shouldn't be used for a supercritical pressure steam generator, as no "boiling" occurs in this product.
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Accessories
Boiler accessories and fittings
Pressuretrols to regulate the vapor pressure in the boiler. Boilers generally have 2 or 3 3 pressuretrols: a manual-reset pressuretrol, which functions as a security by setting top of the limit of steam pressure, the operating pressuretrol, which controls when the boiler fires to keep pressure, as well as for boilers equipped with a modulating burner, a modulating pressuretrol which settings the amount of fire.
Security valve: It is utilized to alleviate pressure and stop possible explosion of a boiler.
Water level indications: They show the operator the amount of fluid in the boiler, also known as a view glass, water measure or water column.
Bottom blowdown valves: They provide a way for removing solid particulates that condense and lie on underneath of the boiler. As the name implies, this valve is located directly on underneath of the boiler usually, and is sometimes opened up to use the pressure in the boiler to drive these particulates out.
Constant blowdown valve: This enables a small level of water to escape continuously. Its purpose is to prevent the water in the boiler becoming saturated with dissolved salts. Saturation would business lead to foaming and cause water droplets to be transported over with the steam - an ailment known as priming. Blowdown is also often used to monitor the chemistry of the boiler water.
Trycock: a type of valve that is often use to manually check a liquid level in a container. Most entirely on a drinking water boiler commonly.
Flash container: High-pressure blowdown enters this vessel where the vapor can 'flash' safely and become used in a low-pressure system or be vented to atmosphere while the ambient pressure blowdown flows to drain.
Automatic blowdown/continuous heat recovery system: This system allows the boiler to blowdown only when makeup water is flowing to the boiler, thereby transferring the utmost amount of heat possible from the blowdown to the makeup water. No flash tank is normally needed as the blowdown discharged is close to the heat of the makeup water.
Hand holes: These are metal plates installed in openings in "header" to allow for inspections & installing pipes and inspection of inner surfaces.
Vapor drum internals, a series of display, scrubber & cans (cyclone separators).
Low-water cutoff: It really is a mechanical means (usually a float switch) that is used to turn off the burner or shut down fuel to the boiler to avoid it from running once the drinking water runs below a certain point. If a boiler is "dry-fired" (burned without water in it) it can cause rupture or catastrophic failure.
Surface blowdown line: It provides a way for removing foam or other light-weight non-condensible chemicals that have a tendency to float on top of the water inside the boiler.
Circulating pump: It really is designed to circulate drinking water back to the boiler after it has expelled some of its heat.
Feedwater check valve or clack valve: A non-return stop valve in the feedwater series. This can be fitted to the side of the boiler, below water level just, or to the very best of the boiler.[10 -
Top give food to: Within this design for feedwater injection, water is fed to the very best of the boiler. This may reduce boiler exhaustion caused by thermal stress. By spraying the feedwater over some trays the water is quickly warmed and this can reduce limescale.
Desuperheater pipes or bundles: Some pipes or bundles of pipes in the water drum or the vapor drum made to cool superheated vapor, in order to provide auxiliary equipment that will not need, or may be damaged by, dry vapor.
Chemical substance injection line: A link with add chemicals for controlling feedwater pH.
Steam accessories
Main steam stop valve:
Steam traps:
Main steam stop/check valve: It can be used on multiple boiler installations.
Combustion accessories
Gasoline oil system:fuel oil heaters
Gas system:
Coal system:
Soot blower
Other essential items
Pressure gauges:
Feed pumps:
Fusible plug:
Inspectors test pressure gauge attachment:
Name plate:
Registration dish:

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